US Military Action in Venezuela Revives Fukuyama's 'End of History' Debate
In recent weeks, the United States military operation in Venezuela has sparked intense global discussions around core values such as democracy, pluralism, and the rules-based international order. This intervention has raised profound questions about how democratic ideals intersect with strategic energy interests, particularly in resource-rich nations. The situation also invites a re-examination of political philosopher Francis Fukuyama's influential thesis in The End of History and the Last Man, written in the aftermath of the Cold War.
The Venezuela Intervention: Sovereignty and Democratic Principles
The US military attacks on Venezuela's capital, Caracas, and the abduction of President Nicolas Maduro in early January 2026 have drawn sharp criticism as violations of national sovereignty. This action is being viewed through the lens of historical precedents, including interventions in Chile, Panama, and Iran, where similar operations were justified under the banner of promoting democratic governance.
Venezuela, with its vast oil reserves estimated at approximately 300 billion barrels in the Orinoco region, represents about 17 percent of global oil reserves. This resource wealth has made the country a focal point of geopolitical interest. Reports suggesting that former US President Donald Trump advocated for American oversight of Venezuela's oil revenue have further fueled debates about whether democratic promotion is genuinely motivated by ideals or by economic and strategic calculations.
Understanding 'Carbon Democracy' and Its Implications
The concept of carbon democracy, as articulated by Columbia University academic Timothy Mitchell in his seminal work Carbon Democracy: Political Power in the Age of Oil, provides a critical framework for analyzing these developments. Mitchell argues that the US-led Western advocacy for democracy worldwide has been fundamentally linked to the global hydrocarbon fuel industry and the preservation of Western imperial interests.
Mitchell's analysis suggests that Western powers have often exported carbon copies of democracy—replicas that are abundant in quantity but deficient in quality, much like fading carbon paper duplicates. This phenomenon is particularly evident in regions rich in fossil fuels, such as the Middle East, where strategic interests frequently overshadow genuine democratic development.
Indian political theorist Partha Chatterjee, in his book I Am the People: Reflections on Popular Sovereignty Today, observes that features once characteristic of democracies in Africa or Asia are now appearing in Europe and the United States. This shift reflects underlying structural relationships that have long connected metropolitan centers with their colonial and postcolonial peripheries, challenging the notion of Western democratic exceptionalism.
Historical Parallels: Oil, Intervention, and Political Order
The history of US foreign policy reveals a pattern of interventions in resource-rich nations, often under the guise of promoting democracy. Key examples include:
- The 1953 coup in Iran, backed by British and American intelligence, which overthrew Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh and reversed oil nationalization policies, reinstating foreign control over Iran's oil resources.
- The 1973 coup in Chile, supported by the US, which ousted Socialist President Salvador Allende and installed General Augusto Pinochet's repressive regime, aligning with Western economic interests in the region.
- The 1989 US invasion of Panama, which captured General Manuel Noriega, illustrating continued interventionist policies in Latin America.
The recent action against Venezuela's Maduro is seen as a contemporary parallel to these historical interventions, reinforcing Mitchell's argument about the interplay between energy resources and democratic promotion.
Energy Resources and Democratic Instability: A Global Perspective
The connection between oil reserves and political instability extends beyond Latin America. In West Africa, Nigeria's Niger Delta region, with its substantial oil wealth, has experienced cycles of military dictatorship and democratic governance, highlighting how resource abundance can complicate democratic consolidation.
In the Middle East, US strategic interests in countries like Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar demonstrate how energy resources and geopolitical influence are intricately linked. Conversely, the US has also supported color-coded revolutions, such as Ukraine's Orange Revolution and Georgia's Rose Revolution, to align post-Soviet states with Western political and economic models.
Reassessing Fukuyama's 'End of History' Thesis
Francis Fukuyama's proclamation of Western liberal democracy as the end of history—the ultimate form of governance that would spread globally—has faced significant challenges in contemporary times. The current era is marked by democratic backsliding, as noted by political scientists, particularly since the beginning of the first Trump administration.
Harvard scholars Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt, in their acclaimed book How Democracies Die, warn about the vulnerabilities of democratic systems. President Joe Biden's advocacy for democracies against autocracies, referencing rivals like Russia and China, underscores the ongoing ideological contestation that Fukuyama's thesis did not fully anticipate.
India, Europe, and the Future of International Order
Amidst these uncertainties, India and the European Union have emphasized shared values such as democracy, pluralism, and open market economies. As President Droupadi Murmu highlighted, this partnership carries the responsibility of maintaining global stability through diplomacy, multilateralism, and peaceful coexistence. Their cooperation could play a pivotal role in shaping a rules-based international order that balances democratic ideals with pragmatic geopolitical realities.
The debate over whether democracy can be imposed from outside remains contentious, with ethical and political implications that demand careful consideration. As global dynamics evolve, the intersection of energy resources, democratic principles, and historical theories like Fukuyama's continues to shape international relations and governance models worldwide.
