Ancient Trade Blockade May Have Sparked Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia
Archaeological research suggests that a significant blockade of trade voyages by South Indian merchants to China, imposed by the Sri Vijaya kings of present-day Sumatra approximately 1,000 years ago, could have been the catalyst for the Chola dynasty's first major naval expedition to Southeast Asia. This revelation comes from archaeologist V Selvakumar of the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology at Tamil University in Thanjavur.
Political and Economic Motivations Behind the Expeditions
The Chola involvement was likely encouraged by a combination of political ambitions and economic pressures. According to Selvakumar, forces opposing the Sri Vijayas, known as the Khambojas, along with merchant guilds from South Asia and West Asia, played a role in motivating the Cholas. "The Chola naval expedition helped the South Indian merchant guilds to establish their settlements in Southeast Asia and trade with China," he explained in a discussion with TOI.
Selvakumar presented these findings in a paper titled 'Merchants, merchant guilds and trade activities in medieval Tamil Nadu' at an international conference on Tamil epigraphy in Chennai, organized by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology.
Trade Goods and Merchant Guilds
The Chola territories were active in exporting valuable commodities such as pearls, pepper, and textiles. In return, they required camphor for rituals, as well as copper and tin for producing bronze images, coins, and ritual vessels. Specialized maritime merchant guilds, including Anjuvannam, Manigramattar, and Tisaiayirattu Ainurruvar (The Five Hundred), were well-established across Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, facilitating this trade network.
S Rajavelu, a former epigraphist with the Archaeological Survey of India, emphasized that trade was a primary driver. "Trade seems to be the main reason for the Cholas' naval expedition. Before and after the war, the Cholas maintained friendly relations with the Sri Vijaya kingdom by allowing them to establish a Buddhist Vihar at the Cholas' port city, Nagapattinam," he noted.
Multiple Expeditions and Historical Records
Y Subbarayalu, a senior epigraphist and expert in Chola history, highlighted that the Cholas conducted multiple naval expeditions to Southeast Asia during the 11th century CE. "Rajendra Chola I and Kulottunga Chola I conducted naval expeditions to South East Asian countries. The inscriptions also mention the places they conquered," he stated.
However, understanding the naval organization of the Cholas remains challenging due to limited sources. "We do not have direct and detailed references to the Chola Navy. There is one reference to Karaipataiyilar (the army of the shore) in an inscription from Sirkazhi dated to 1187 CE, which perhaps refers to the army of the coastal region or navy," Subbarayalu added.
Composition of the Chola Navy and Modern Parallels
Selvakumar speculated on the composition of the Chola navy, suggesting it may have included warriors and sailors from fishing communities along the east coast, as well as from Sri Lanka and Kerala. Additionally, Arab mercenaries, merchant sailors, and navigators from mercantile guilds likely contributed. He drew a parallel to contemporary times, noting that today's world sees bitter tariff wars, highlighting similarities in international and diplomatic relations across history.
During the medieval period, merchants were specialized, with separate groups for textiles, oil, gold, and gems. The research paper indicated that Tisaiyarirattu Ainurruvar were major merchant groups, also known as Pathinen Vishayattar, Ainurruvar, Valanjiyar, and Ayyavole. "It seems that several independent merchant guilds became a large conglomerate, and it appears that they also maintained their individual existence. This large group disintegrated from the 13th century, as we do not hear much about their activities. After this period, Islamic merchants might have dominated maritime trade," the researchers concluded.
Historical Documentation and Legacy
Accounts of Chola conquests are preserved in inscriptions and copper plates, while Chinese records document diplomatic missions from the Cholas. Notably, the 'meikirti' of Rajendra Chola I records the naval achievements of the Cholas, underscoring their maritime prowess and the lasting impact of these expeditions on trade and cultural exchanges in the region.
